Scientific Library
Mechanisms
Ingredient-level pages describing molecular targets, signalling pathways, and mechanistically relevant adjunctive or investigational contexts. Each compound page can be read as Clinical / Scientific or Simplified. These pages do not establish clinical efficacy and are not individualized medical advice.
Alphabetical
Pathway category
Mechanism type
Pathway
81 compounds
NNMT inhibitor (small-molecule research compound)
5-amino-1MQ
Inhibits nicotinamide N-methyltransferase, a metabolic enzyme that consumes nicotinamide and can influence NAD+ salvage in experimental models.
Metabolic · Mitochondrial
Prohibitin-targeting peptide (experimental fat-vasculature ligand)
Adipotide
Designed peptide intended to bind prohibitin-expressing vasculature in white adipose tissue and deliver a pro-apoptotic sequence in animal models.
Metabolic · Vascular
AMP analog / AMPK activator (research)
AICAR
Converted to ZMP, an AMP mimetic that activates AMPK and exercise-mimetic metabolic programmes in experimental systems.
Metabolic · Mitochondrial
Benzimidazole anthelmintic
Albendazole
Binds parasite β-tubulin, impairing microtubule-dependent glucose uptake and energy metabolism in susceptible helminths.
Antimicrobial · Metabolic
β-lactam antibacterial (aminopenicillin)
Amoxicillin
Inhibits bacterial peptidoglycan cross-linking by binding penicillin-binding proteins, weakening the cell wall of susceptible organisms.
Antimicrobial
Aminopenicillin plus β-lactamase inhibitor
Amoxicillin/Clavulanic acid
Pairs cell-wall inhibition (amoxicillin) with clavulanate blockade of many serine β-lactamases, restoring activity against some enzyme-producing bacteria.
Antimicrobial
HGH fragment analogue (C-terminal lipolytic fragment research)
AOD-9604
Modified fragment of the C-terminus of growth hormone investigated for lipolytic signalling without full GH-receptor growth programmes.
Metabolic · Endocrine
Innate repair receptor peptide (EPO-derived)
ARA-290
Non-erythropoietic EPO-derived peptide that selectively engages the innate repair receptor (EPOR/CD131) in inflammatory and neuropathic models.
Neurological · Anti-inflammatory · Immune
Macrolide antibacterial
Azithromycin
Binds the 50S ribosomal subunit and blocks bacterial protein synthesis in susceptible organisms.
Antimicrobial · Anti-inflammatory
Gastric pentadecapeptide (research)
BPC-157
Stable gastric peptide fragment studied for angiogenic, NO-related, and cytoprotective signalling in animal injury models.
Vascular · Anti-inflammatory
Long-acting amylin analogue
Cagrilintide
Amylin-receptor agonist that reduces food intake and slows gastric emptying; often studied with GLP-1 agonists.
Metabolic · Endocrine
First-generation cephalosporin
Cephalexin
β-lactam that inhibits penicillin-binding proteins and peptidoglycan cross-linking in susceptible bacteria.
Antimicrobial
LH-receptor agonist glycoprotein
Chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Binds LH/hCG receptors, stimulating Leydig-cell testosterone production and maintaining corpus luteum progesterone in labelled uses.
Endocrine
GHRH analogue (with or without Drug Affinity Complex)
CJC-1295
Growth-hormone-releasing hormone analogue that stimulates pituitary GH secretion; DAC modification prolongs half-life via albumin binding.
Endocrine · Metabolic
μ-opioid receptor agonist heptapeptide
Dermorphin
Amphibian μ-opioid peptide with high MOR potency; research use only, with full opioid class risks.
Neurological
Tetracycline antibacterial
Doxycycline
Binds the 30S ribosomal subunit, blocking aminoacyl-tRNA attachment and bacterial protein synthesis. Also has host matrix-metalloproteinase effects at sub-antimicrobial exposures.
Antimicrobial · Anti-inflammatory
Delta sleep-inducing peptide (research neuropeptide)
DSIP
Nonapeptide historically associated with sleep-related and stress-axis signalling; clinical status is not that of a modern licensed hypnotic.
Neurological
5-HT1B/1D receptor agonist (triptan)
Eletriptan
Cranial vasoconstriction and inhibition of trigeminal neuropeptide release via 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptors.
Neurological · Vascular
Trans-isomer SERM / estrogen receptor antagonist at hypothalamus
Enclomiphene
Antagonizes hypothalamic estrogen receptors, increasing GnRH pulse signalling and thereby LH/FSH and endogenous testosterone in men with intact HPG axes.
Endocrine
Synthetic pineal tetrapeptide (research)
Epithalon
Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly tetrapeptide studied in ageing models for telomerase and pineal signalling hypotheses.
Endocrine
Benzimidazole anthelmintic
Fenbendazole
Veterinary benzimidazole that binds parasite β-tubulin. Mammalian microtubule and metabolic effects are preclinical and are not established human indications.
Antimicrobial · Oncology-related pathways
D-retro-inverso FOXO4 peptide (experimental senolytic)
FOXO4-DRI
Designed peptide that disrupts FOXO4–p53 interaction, causing apoptosis of senescent cells in mouse models.
Oncology-related pathways
Copper-binding tripeptide
GHK-Cu
Gly-His-Lys copper complex studied for gene-expression, remodelling, and antioxidant effects in skin and tissue-repair models.
Dermatological · Anti-inflammatory
Ghrelin-receptor agonist (growth-hormone releasing peptide)
GHRP-2
Oligopeptide GHS-R1a agonist that increases GH secretion; also affects appetite signalling as a ghrelin-pathway ligand.
Endocrine · Metabolic
Ghrelin-receptor agonist
GHRP-6
Hexapeptide GHS-R1a agonist with prominent GH release and orexigenic (appetite) effects.
Endocrine · Metabolic
Tripeptide antioxidant (GSH)
Glutathione
Principal intracellular thiol buffer used by glutathione peroxidases and S-transferases; exogenous GSH has limited intact cellular uptake.
Anti-inflammatory · Mitochondrial
GnRH receptor agonist (native decapeptide)
Gonadorelin
Pulsatile GnRH analogue that stimulates LH/FSH; continuous exposure desensitizes the receptor and suppresses the axis.
Endocrine
Ghrelin-receptor agonist (GHRP)
Hexarelin
Potent GHS-R1a agonist; experimental cardiac GHS-R effects have been studied separately from GH release.
Endocrine · Cardiovascular
C-terminal GH fragment (research lipolytic analogue)
HGH fragment 176-191
C-terminal fragment of GH studied for adipose lipolysis with less overlap on full GH-receptor growth signalling.
Metabolic
FSH + LH activity gonadotropin mixture
Human menopausal gonadotropin (hMG)
Urinary FSH/LH preparation used to stimulate follicular development in labelled fertility protocols.
Endocrine
4-aminoquinoline (antimalarial / DMARD)
Hydroxychloroquine
Weak-base lysosomotropic agent that raises endosomal pH, interfering with antigen processing and Toll-like-receptor signalling, with additional effects on autophagy.
Antimicrobial · Immune · Anti-inflammatory
Long-acting IGF-1 analogue (research)
IGF-1 LR3
IGF-1 analogue with reduced IGFBP binding and longer half-life, activating IGF-1 receptors and PI3K/AKT/mTOR growth signalling.
Endocrine · Oncology-related pathways
Selective ghrelin-receptor (GHS-R1a) agonist
Ipamorelin
Pentapeptide growth-hormone secretagogue with relatively selective GH release and less ACTH/cortisol stimulation than older GHRPs in experimental comparisons.
Endocrine
Triazole antifungal
Itraconazole
Inhibits fungal CYP51 (lanosterol 14α-demethylase), blocking ergosterol synthesis and destabilizing the fungal membrane.
Antimicrobial
Macrocyclic lactone anthelmintic / ectoparasiticide
Ivermectin
Positive allosteric modulator of invertebrate glutamate-gated chloride channels, producing paralysis in susceptible parasites. Mammalian GABA/glycine channel effects occur at much higher exposures.
Antimicrobial · Immune
KISS1R (GPR54) agonist fragment
Kisspeptin-10
C-terminal kisspeptin fragment that stimulates GnRH neurons via KISS1R, raising LH/FSH when the hypothalamic axis is intact.
Endocrine
α-MSH C-terminal tripeptide (research anti-inflammatory)
KPV
Lys-Pro-Val fragment of α-MSH studied for melanocortin-independent and MC1R-related anti-inflammatory effects in gut and skin models.
Anti-inflammatory · Immune
Imidazothiazole nicotinic anthelmintic / immunomodulator
Levamisole
Agonist at nematode nicotinic receptors causing spastic paralysis; host immunomodulatory effects are a separate, historically used pharmacology.
Antimicrobial · Immune
Synthetic T4 thyroid hormone
Levothyroxine
Prohormone that is peripherally converted to T3, then regulates gene transcription via thyroid hormone receptors.
Endocrine · Metabolic
Synthetic T3 thyroid hormone
Liothyronine
Direct thyroid-hormone receptor agonist (T3) with faster onset than T4 replacement.
Endocrine · Metabolic
Human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide
LL-37
Cationic host-defence peptide that disrupts microbial membranes and modulates innate immune signalling.
Antimicrobial · Immune
Benzimidazole anthelmintic
Mebendazole
Selectively binds helminth β-tubulin, blocking microtubule formation and glucose uptake in susceptible intestinal nematodes.
Antimicrobial
MC1R agonist (α-MSH analogue)
Melanotan-1 (afamelanotide related)
Linear α-MSH analogue that stimulates MC1R-dependent eumelanin synthesis. Afamelanotide is the licensed implant relative in photodermatoses in some regions.
Dermatological
Cyclic non-selective melanocortin agonist (research)
Melanotan-2
Cyclic α-MSH analogue with MC1R tanning activity plus more MC3/MC4 effects (appetite, sexual signalling, autonomic) than Melanotan-1.
Dermatological · Neurological
Pineal hormone / MT1–MT2 receptor agonist
Melatonin
Agonist at MT1 and MT2 GPCRs that phase-shift circadian clocks and promote sleep propensity; antioxidant radical-scavenging is additional pharmacology at higher concentrations.
Neurological · Endocrine
Biguanide antihyperglycaemic
Metformin
Inhibits mitochondrial complex I in hepatocytes, raising AMP:ATP and activating AMPK, which reduces gluconeogenesis and alters metabolic signalling.
Metabolic · Mitochondrial
Nitroimidazole antimicrobial
Metronidazole
Reductive activation in anaerobic organisms generates reactive nitro radicals that damage microbial DNA and proteins.
Antimicrobial
IGF-1 splice-variant peptide (mechano growth factor; research)
MGF / PEG-MGF
IGF-1Ec-related peptide studied for local muscle-repair signalling; PEGylation prolongs circulating time in research constructs.
Endocrine
Imidazole antifungal
Miconazole
Inhibits fungal lanosterol 14α-demethylase, depleting ergosterol and disrupting membrane integrity.
Antimicrobial
Mitochondrial-encoded peptide (research)
MOTS-c
mtDNA-encoded 16-amino-acid peptide that influences AMPK and folate-methionine metabolism in experimental metabolic stress.
Mitochondrial · Metabolic
Cysteine prodrug / mucolytic / glutathione precursor
N-acetylcysteine
Supplies cysteine for glutathione synthesis and cleaves mucus disulphide bonds; also modulates glutamatergic and inflammatory signalling in research settings.
Metabolic · Anti-inflammatory · Mitochondrial
Redox cofactor (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
NAD+
Essential hydride-transfer cofactor for dehydrogenases and substrate for sirtuins and PARPs; parenteral NAD+ is a cofactor supply, not a receptor drug.
Mitochondrial · Metabolic
Salicylanilide anthelmintic
Niclosamide
Uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in susceptible cestodes. Host signalling effects (Wnt/STAT3/mTOR and related pathways) are investigational/preclinical.
Antimicrobial · Mitochondrial · Oncology-related pathways
Thiazolide antiparasitic
Nitazoxanide
Inhibits pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR)–dependent electron transfer in anaerobic parasites; host antiviral effects have been investigated separately.
Antimicrobial
Polyene antifungal
Nystatin
Binds ergosterol in fungal membranes, forming pores that leak ions and kill susceptible yeasts. Negligible systemic absorption from typical oral use.
Antimicrobial
Neuraminidase inhibitor antiviral
Oseltamivir
The carboxylate metabolite inhibits influenza A and B neuraminidase, slowing release of new virions from infected cells.
Antimicrobial
Oral anabolic-androgenic steroid
Oxandrolone
Androgen-receptor agonist with relatively high anabolic-to-androgenic ratio in historical labelling, modulating muscle protein transcription.
Endocrine
Oxytocin-receptor agonist nonapeptide
Oxytocin
Gq-coupled OXTR agonist causing uterine contraction and milk ejection; central social-salience signalling is additional neurobiology.
Endocrine · Neurological
Pyrazinoisoquinoline anthelmintic
Praziquantel
Increases parasite calcium permeability, producing tetanic contraction and tegument damage in susceptible trematodes and cestodes.
Antimicrobial
Melanocortin receptor agonist
PT-141 (bremelanotide)
Non-selective melanocortin agonist (notably MC4R) used as a labelled on-demand therapy for hypoactive sexual desire disorder in some markets.
Neurological · Endocrine
Nicotinic anthelmintic
Pyrantel pamoate
Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor agonist at nematode neuromuscular junctions, causing spastic paralysis.
Antimicrobial
Triple GIP / GLP-1 / glucagon receptor agonist (investigational)
Retatrutide
Investigational triple agonist adding glucagon-receptor activity to GIP and GLP-1 signalling for energy expenditure and intake.
Metabolic · Endocrine
GLP-1 receptor agonist
Semaglutide
Long-acting GLP-1 analogue that enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion, suppresses glucagon, slows gastric emptying, and reduces appetite.
Metabolic · Endocrine · Cardiovascular
ACTH(4-10) analogue (research nootropic peptide)
Semax
Melanocortin-related heptapeptide studied for BDNF and neurotrophic signalling, with clinical use in some jurisdictions as a neurometabolic agent.
Neurological
GHRH(1-29) analogue
Sermorelin
Truncated GHRH analogue that stimulates pituitary GH secretion via GHRH receptors.
Endocrine
PDE5 inhibitor
Sildenafil
Inhibits phosphodiesterase-5, preserving cGMP and amplifying nitric-oxide–mediated smooth-muscle relaxation in corpus cavernosum and pulmonary vasculature.
Cardiovascular · Vascular
SNAP-25-related octapeptide (cosmetic research)
SNAP-8
Competitive peptide related to the SNAP-25 SNARE motif, studied for attenuating SNARE-mediated catecholamine release in wrinkle-modulation cosmetics.
Dermatological · Neurological
Recombinant 191-amino-acid growth hormone
Somatropin (HGH 191 AA)
Direct GH-receptor agonist increasing IGF-1, lipolysis, and linear growth programmes depending on developmental context.
Endocrine · Metabolic
Mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide
SS-31 (elamipretide)
Binds cardiolipin on the inner mitochondrial membrane, stabilizing electron-transport supercomplexes in experimental and some clinical-development settings.
Mitochondrial
17α-alkylated anabolic-androgenic steroid
Stanozolol
Androgen-receptor agonist used historically as an anabolic agent; hepatic and lipid class effects are prominent.
Endocrine
Glycosaminoglycan (fast-moving heparin plus dermatan sulphate)
Sulodexide
Endothelial-tropic glycosaminoglycan that supports antithrombin- and heparin cofactor II–mediated anticoagulation at relatively low systemic anticoagulant intensity, and interacts with the vascular glycocalyx.
Cardiovascular · Vascular · Anti-inflammatory
Glucagon / GLP-1 receptor dual agonist (investigational)
Survodutide
Investigational dual GCGR/GLP-1R agonist studied for obesity and liver metabolic disease.
Metabolic · Endocrine
PDE5 inhibitor
Tadalafil
Longer-acting PDE5 inhibitor that preserves cGMP in corpus cavernosum, prostate/bladder, and pulmonary vascular smooth muscle.
Cardiovascular · Vascular
Selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM)
Tamoxifen
Competitive estrogen-receptor modulator with tissue-dependent antagonist and partial-agonist effects, plus active metabolites with high ER affinity.
Endocrine · Oncology-related pathways
Thymosin β4-related actin-sequestering peptide (research)
TB-500 (thymosin β4 fragment)
Actin-binding peptide domain associated with cell migration, angiogenesis, and repair signalling in animal models.
Vascular · Anti-inflammatory
Stabilised GHRH analogue
Tesamorelin
GHRH analogue used as a labelled therapy for HIV-associated lipodystrophy in some markets, reducing visceral adipose tissue via GH/IGF-1.
Endocrine · Metabolic
Thymic polypeptide complex (research / regional use)
Thymalin
Bovine thymic polypeptide preparation studied as an immunomodulatory extract; composition is less defined than single-sequence thymosin α1.
Immune
Thymic peptide immunomodulator
Thymosin alpha-1
Acetylated 28-residue thymic peptide that enhances T-cell maturation and innate antiviral signalling; used as a registered immunomodulator in some countries.
Immune
Nitroimidazole antimicrobial
Tinidazole
Like metronidazole, undergoes reductive activation in anaerobic organisms, generating DNA-damaging radicals.
Antimicrobial
Dual GIP / GLP-1 receptor agonist
Tirzepatide
Single peptide agonist at GIP and GLP-1 receptors, combining incretin insulinotropism with strong effects on appetite and weight in labelled products.
Metabolic · Endocrine
VPAC receptor agonist neuropeptide
VIP (vasoactive intestinal peptide)
Neuropeptide activating VPAC1/VPAC2 (Gs-cAMP) to relax smooth muscle, modulate secretion, and influence immune tone.
Vascular · Immune · Neurological
Mechanistic information is provided for scientific and educational purposes. Discussion of biological pathways or investigational applications does not establish clinical efficacy or constitute individualized medical advice.